Fitness
I shall use this page for fitness related knowledge, including papers, links and whatnot. If you have reservations on some of these, please let me know, whether it is bad statistics, wrong conclusions, etc.
If some of these links do not provide the full text directly, I do not recommend using sci-hub to access them. That would be horrible as you would have access to the full paper without having to go through any paywalls. We do not want that. Do not use sci-hub.
Table of Contents
- Hypertrophy
- Aerobic Exercise
- Stretching
- Sleep vs. Exercise
- Using a Belt in the Gym: Yes or No?
- Additional Resources
Hypertrophy
Rest Periods and Repetition Duration
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Longer Interset Rest Periods Enhance Muscle Strength and Hypertrophy in Resistance-Trained Men (RCT)1
This study provides evidence that longer rest periods promote greater increases in muscle strength and hypertrophy in young resistance-trained men.
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Objective: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine whether alterations in repetition duration can amplify the hypertrophic response to RT. Conclusions: Findings suggest that training at volitionally very slow durations (>10s per repetition) is inferior from a hypertrophy standpoint, although a lack of controlled studies on the topic makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions.
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Conclusion: Repetition duration does not affect the increases in strength in trained participants when exercise is performed to momentary failure. Because time constraints and perceived difficulty are often cited as barriers to exercise, it is important to recognize that the low-volume (single-set), machine-based protocol employed herein produced worthwhile strength increases in trained participants.
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Muscle fibre activation is unaffected by load and repetition duration when resistance exercise is performed to task failure (Clinical Trial)
We conclude that muscle fibre activation and subsequent anabolic signalling are independent of load, repetition duration and surface EMG amplitude when RE is performed to task failure. The results of the present study provide evidence indicating that type I and type II fibres are activated when heavier and lighter loads are lifted to task failure. We propose that our results explain why RE training with higher or lower loads, when loads are lifted to task failure, leads to equivalent muscle hypertrophy and occurs in both type I and type II fibres.
Stretching and Exercise Selection
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More studies are warranted to elucidate the effects of Interset Stretching (ISS) compared with Traditional Strength Training (TST) protocols on skeletal muscle. However, our findings support that adding ISS to regular TST regimens does not compromise muscular adaptations during the early phase of training (<8 weeks) in untrained individuals.
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Conclusions: Enhanced muscle in vivo (and somewhat IGF-1) adaptations to resistance training are concurrent with muscle stretch, which warrants its inclusion within training.
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Gluteus Maximus Activation during Common Strength and Hypertrophy Exercises: A Systematic Review (Review)
[…] this systematic review demonstrated that the step-up exercise and its variations present the highest levels of muscle excitation of GMax followed by several bilateral exercises and its variations, such as deadlifts, hip thrusts, and squats.
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Stretching showed increases in maximal strength and hypertrophy, which were comparable with commonly used resistance training.
Long-Length Muscle Training
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Greater Hamstrings Muscle Hypertrophy but Similar Damage Protection after Training at Long versus Short Muscle Lengths (Comparative Study)
The biarticular hamstrings are lengthened more in a seated (hip-flexed) than prone (hip-extended) position. Hamstrings muscle size can be more effectively increased by seated than prone leg curl training, suggesting that training at long muscle lengths promotes muscle hypertrophy, but both are similarly effective in reducing susceptibility to muscle damage.
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In conclusion, triceps brachii hypertrophy was substantially greater [around 40%] after elbow extension training performed in the overhead versus neutral arm position, even with lower absolute loads used during the training.
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In conclusion, partial ROM [INITIALROM: 100°-65°] training in the initial phase of the knee extension exercise promoted greater relative hypertrophy in certain muscle regions than training in other ROM configurations, and no group promoted a greater 1RM increase than VARROM group, which showed similar 1RM increases in the different ROMs tested.
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In conclusion, gains in muscular strength were greater for BAR only at longer muscle length, whereas hypertrophy was similar regardless of whether torque emphasis was carried out in the final (CAB) or initial (BAR) degrees of the range of motion of the preacher curl in young adults.
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INITIAL ROM elicited greater lateral gastrocnemius increases than FINAL ROM (INITIAL ROM = +14.9% vs. FINAL ROM = +6.2%; p < 0.024) but did not significantly differ from FULL ROM (FULL ROM = +7.3%; p = 0.060). [This was in untrained women.]
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Increases in fascicle length (29±4% vs. 14±4%), distal aCSA (53±12% vs. 18±8%), strength (26±6% vs. 7±3%), and IGF-1 (31±6% vs. 7±6%) were greater in LL compared with SL muscles (P<0.05). No changes occurred in CON. Detraining decrements in strength and aCSA were greater in SL than LL muscles (P<0.05). [This was in untrainned men. Trained quadriceps for 8 weeks. Detrained for 4 weeks afterwards.]
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Muscle thickness at 50% length was increased 10.7±15.3% (p< 0.05) and 13.7±9.0% (p< 0.01) after S and L, while at 60% it was increased 15.5±18.8% (p< 0.05) and 19.4±16.3% (p< 0.01), respectively. Longitudinal muscle area increased similarly after S and L (p< 0.01). Fascicle angle and length were not altered with training. These results indicate that muscle strength and architecture of elbow extensors adapt similarly during the first six weeks of resistance training at either long or short fascicle length. [In women.]
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The INITIALROM protocol displayed a greater CSA (biceps brachii cross-sectional area) increase than FINALROM protocol at 70% of biceps length (p = 0.001). Alternatively, we observed similar increases between the protocols for CSA at 50% (p = 0.311) and for CSAsummed (p = 0.111). Moreover, the INITIALROM protocol displayed a greater 1RM increase than FINALROM (p < 0.001). [Young women, 8 weeks. Seated dumbbell preacher curl.]
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Training with partial ROM yielded noninferior results compared to full ROM for leg press peak power (+69 ± 47% vs. +61 ± 64%), isokinetic strength (4-6 ± 6%-12% vs. 1-6 ± 6%-10% at 30, 60, and 180˚s-1 ), and explosive torque after 100 (47 ± 24 vs. 35 ± 22) and 150 ms (57 ± 22% vs. 42 ± 25%). The comparison was inconclusive for other functional parameters (ie, isokinetic peak torque (300˚s-1 ), joint angle at isokinetic peak torque, explosive torque after 50 ms, and electrically evoked torque) and for muscle fascicle length and thickness, although noninferiority was established for pennation angle. However, partial ROM was not found statistically inferior to full ROM for any measured variable. [15 trained men. Leg press and knee extension. 1 leg Full ROM, the other partial ROM]
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The CSA increased significantly greater after PRE (elbow range from 45° to 90°) (48.7 ± 14.5%) than after FRE (from 0° to 120°) (28.2 ± 10.9%). Furthermore, during the PRE program, a positive correlation was detected between the percent increase in CSA and area under the Oxy-Hb curves before and after 8-week exercise training. These results suggest that intramuscular hypoxia might facilitate muscular hypertrophy with PRE being more effective than FRE. [45 young trained men. 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week. lying elbow extension.]
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Partial Vs Full Range of Motion Resistance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (Review)
Overall, our results suggest that using a full or long ROM may enhance results for most outcomes (strength, speed, power, muscle size, and body composition). Differences in adaptations are trivial to small. As such, partial ROM resistance training might present an efficacious alternative for variation and personal preference, or where injury prevents full-ROM resistance training.
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The effects of hipflexionangle on quadriceps femoris musclehypertrophy in the leg extension exercise
This study compared the effects of resistance training on quadriceps femoris hypertrophy while sitting upright (90° hip flexion) versus recumbent (40° hip flexion) when performing the leg extension exercise with similar knee flexion range of motion. […] evidence in support of a hypertrophic response favouring the 40° hip angle for the rectus femoris , and ‘strong’ evidence in support of no difference in hypertrophic response for the vastus lateralis.
Training Routines (Frequency, Supplementation, etc.)
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When comparing studies that investigated training muscle groups between 1 to 3 days per week on a volume-equated basis, the current body of evidence indicates that frequencies of training twice a week promote superior hypertrophic outcomes to once a week.
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Pre- versus post-exercise protein intake has similar effects on muscular adaptations (RT)
Results showed that pre- and post-workout protein consumption had similar effects on all measures studied.
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High Resistance-Training Frequency Enhances Muscle Thickness in Resistance-Trained Men
After 8 weeks of training, no significant difference between groups was noted for all 1RM tests (p > 0.05). TOTAL [full-body] induced a significantly greater increase in [muscle thickness] of the forearm flexors and vastus lateralis (p < 0.05). In conclusion, muscle strength increment is similar regardless of the experimental conditions studied; however, TOTAL may confer a potentially superior hypertrophic effect.
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Pea proteins oral supplementation promotes muscle thickness gains during resistance training: a double-blind, randomized, Placebo-controlled clinical trial vs. Whey protein (RDBPC)2
In addition to an appropriate training, the supplementation with pea protein promoted a greater increase of muscle thickness as compared to Placebo and especially for people starting or returning to a muscular strengthening. Since no difference was obtained between the two protein groups, vegetable pea proteins could be used as an alternative to Whey-based dietary products.
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Both whey and rice protein isolate administration post resistance exercise improved indices of body composition and exercise performance; however, there were no differences between the two groups.
Training to Failure: Pros and Cons
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Conclusion: Training to muscle failure does not seem to be required for gains in strength and muscle size. However, training in this manner does not seem to have detrimental effects on these adaptations, either. More studies should be conducted among older adults and highly trained individuals to improve the generalizability of these findings.
[Results…] In the subgroup analysis for resistance-trained individuals, the analysis showed a significant effect of training to failure for muscle hypertrophy.
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Conclusion: Overall, the results suggest that despite statistically significant effects on muscular strength being found for non-failure compared with failure training, the small percentage of improvement shown for non-failure training is unlikely to be meaningful. Therefore, it appears that similar increases in muscular strength can be achieved with failure and non-failure training. Furthermore, it seems unnecessary to perform failure training to maximise muscular strength; however, if incorporated into a programme, training to failure should be performed sparingly to limit the risks of injuries and overtraining.
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Is Resistance Training to Muscular Failure Necessary? (Review)
In conclusion, considering the evidence regarding untrained subjects, it seems plausible to suggest that HI-RT [High Intensity Resistance Training] to failure is not necessary for maximal increases in strength and hypertrophy. On the other hand, repetitions to failure seem essential for increases in muscle strength and mass of similar magnitude to HI-RT when performing LI-RT [Low Intensity Resistance Training]. When it comes to trained individuals, evidence show greater increases in muscle strength after HI-RT performed to muscle failure compared to no failure. Similarly to untrained individuals, muscle failure at LI-RT might be an interesting strategy for maximizing muscle hypertrophy. However, it does not promote maximal increases on muscle strength when performed by strength trained individuals.
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No difference was found between RTF [Resistance Training to Failure] and RTNF [Resistance Training Not to Failure] on maximal strength in overall analysis (SMD: −0.08; p = 0.642), but greater strength increase was observed in RTNF considering nonequalized volumes (SMD: −0.34; p = 0.048). Resistance training performed to failure showed a greater increase in muscle hypertrophy than RTNF (SMD: 0.75; p = 0.005), whereas no difference was observed considering equalized RT volumes. No difference was found between RTF and RTNF on muscle power considering overall analysis (SMD: −0.20; p = 0.239), whereas greater improvement was observed in RTNF considering nonequalized RT volumes (SMD: −0.61; p = 0.025). Resistance training not to failure may induce comparable or even greater improvements in maximal dynamic strength and power output, whereas no difference between RTF vs. RTNF is observed on muscle hypertrophy, considering equalized RT volumes.
Aerobic Exercise
- Acute aerobic exercise to recover from mental exhaustion - a randomized controlled trial (RCT)
In conclusion, this study suggests that a single bout of acute aerobic exercise supports regeneration of cognitive flexibility performance and of subjective well-being. This holds true not just compared to artificial active control treatment but also compared to widespread leisure time activity, namely watching TV.
Stretching
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The Relation Between Stretching Typology and Stretching Duration: The Effects on Range of Motion (Review)
Time spent stretching per week seems fundamental to elicit range of movement improvements when stretches are applied for at least or more than 5 min, whereas the time spent stretching within a single session does not seem to have significant effects for ROM gains. Weekly frequency is positively associated to ROM. Evaluated data indicates that performing stretching at least 5 days a week for at least 5 min per week using static stretching may be beneficial to promote ROM improvements.
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The effect of time and frequency of static stretching on flexibility of the hamstring muscles (Clinical Trial)
No increase in flexibility occurred when the duration of stretching was increased from 30 to 60 seconds or when the frequency of stretching was increased from one to three times per day.
Sleep vs. Exercise
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High Intensity Interval Exercise’s short-term effects on cardiovascular function remain cardioprotective even after an acute-partial sleep deprivation.
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Long sleep duration, difficulty falling asleep, and use of sleeping medication were related to a higher risk of death. Being physically active at a moderate intensity for 25-65 min/day eliminated these detrimental associations.
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Twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation resulted in acute insulin resistance. However, HIIT is an effective strategy to minimize the deleterious effects promoted by this condition.
Using a Belt in the Gym: Yes or No?
- The Belt Bible: A cool article on whether one should be using a belt in the gym. Many references, well written.